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2020 Cities Climate Hazards
| Row number | Questionnaire Name | Account Number | Account Name | Country | CDP Region | Parent Section | Section | Row Number | Row Name | Climate Hazards | Did this hazard significantly impact your city before 2020? | Current probability of hazard | Current magnitude of hazard | Social impact of hazard overall | Most relevant assets / services affected overall | Please identify which vulnerable populations are affected | Future change in frequency | Future change in intensity | Future expected magnitude of hazard | When do you first expect to experience those changes in frequency and intensity? | Please describe the impacts experienced so far, and how you expect the hazard to impact in the future |
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| 551 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Extreme Precipitation > Rain storm | Yes | High | Medium | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Other, please specify: Public safety; Public health; Transport | Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing | Do not know | Increasing | Low | Immediately | The increase in rain storms creates unsafe driving conditions and greatly affects traffic. We are experiencing a growing number of "rain bombs" (short but intense in volume rain events) which coupled with rising groundwater levels leads to flooding in both urban and suburban areas of the city. The city’s stormwater system is designed for a 5 year LOS, however the city experiences multiple storm events each year exceeding this capacity. This results in flooding of residential and commercial properties, impacts our tourism industry, and further development of Miami. If the frequency of rain storms continues to climb this hazard can intensify the mentioned consequences, impacting future residents, tourists, and developers. | |
| 552 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Chemical change > Salt water intrusion | Yes | Medium High | Does not currently impact the city | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Food & agriculture; Land use planning; Public health; Residential; Society / community & culture; Water supply & sanitation | Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | High | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Considering that Miami's freshwater source is our aquifers, freshwater supply will become one of the main concerns as sea levels continue to rise. This will in turn affect residential areas and communities that rely on the available tap water. The entire Miami society may not only face potable water issues, but also public health issues and impacts on local agriculture/food production. Current development standards that do not prioritize permeability as well as Everglades drainage canals (built in the 1950s) limit aquifer recharge.Miami-Dade County’s primary source of potable water is the Biscayne Aquifer which is vulnerable to salt water intrusion. With increasing water demands, a growing population and the effects of sea level rise, water conservation is crucial to preserve the aquifer and make it more resilient to these pressures. Given that water and sewer are managed at the County and Regional level by the Miami Dade County Water and Sewer District and South Florida Water Management District, the City’s role is to serve as a strong partner in their initiatives to maintain the quality and quantity of our surface water, groundwater and drinking water. This includes, for example, enforcement of regulation of land uses and activities that may contribute to pollution, monitoring, soil and water remediation, stormwater management, and natural resource restoration and co-hosting education workshops for homeowners and businesses on energy and water efficiency and conservation. Miami-Dade County’s report on its efforts to monitor and control saltwater intrusion is here. https://www.miamidade.gov/green/library/sea-level-rise-flooding-saltwater-intrusion.pdf | |
| 553 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Storm and wind > Storm surge | Yes | High | High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for public services; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Land use planning; Residential; Society / community & culture; Tourism; Transport | Other, please specify: Those living on the waterfront (coastal or river) | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Storm surge during hurricanes will directly impacting coastal residents and businesses, endanger residents, and limit street access/transportation. As a waterfront city, Miami has an average elevation of just 6 FT above sea level, however recent studies predict a storm surge as high as 13.4 FT above sea level during a 1% storm event coupled with sea level rise predictions. With Miami's low elevation, Storm surge will have an extensive reach throughout much of the city. 60% of the City's seawall is owned by residents (private property) so the City cannot perform uniform upgrades. Waterfront property owners range in socioeconomic status, those along the Miami River are most vulnerable. Storm surge was between 3-6 feet during Hurricane Irma in 2017. The US Army Corps of Engineers in completing a Coastal Storm Risk Management Study which will recommend measures to reduce the probability and storm surge damages from occurring and mitigate the consequences when storm surge events occur. | |
| 554 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Flood and sea level rise > Permanent inundation | No | Medium | Medium | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Loss of tax base to support public services; Population displacement | Land use planning; Residential; Society / community & culture; Transport | Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing | Increasing | Do not know | High | Long-term (after 2050) | The sea level around Miami, Florida, has risen by 8 inches since 1950. The speed of rise has accelerated over the last ten years and it’s now rising by 0.22 inch each year. According to Unified Sea Level Rise Projections, sea level is projected to rise 10 to 17 inches above 1992 mean sea level by 2040 and by 2070, it is projected to rise 21 to 40 inches (above 1992 mean sea level). Miami is seen as the tip of the spear when it comes to sea level rise impacts and is an existential threat for many. Miami's struggles with SLR are unique due to porous limestone bedrock, making holistic and integrated solutions a necessity. Major stormwater management and drainage infrastructure improvements are needed to address this challenge, which has a high price tag. It is important for Miami's economy to remain strong so municipalities have access to financial resources and expertise. Sea Level Rise impacts the future of development and land use in South Florida. As time goes on and SLR impacts become more pronounced, some areas of the City may need to retreat if infrastructure solutions are not sufficient. | |
| 555 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Biological hazards > Vector-borne disease | Yes | Medium | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Commercial; Emergency services; Public health; Society / community & culture; Tourism; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Persons with chronic diseases; Women & girls | Do not know | Do not know | Do not know | Short-term (by 2025) | The ability to handle and control vector-borne diseases would be a main concern for the public health of city residents, especially those who do not have health insurance and cannot afford medical attention. With increased heat, humidity, and rainfall, Miami will remain a hospitable environment for vectors, like mosquitoes, and therefore the diseases they carry.Most recently, Miami dealt with the Zika virus outbreak in 2016. One of Miami's most popular commercial and tourist destinations, Wynwood, was deemed a Zika transmission area and economic activity came to an abrupt halt. Miami had to deploy workers to canvas neighborhoods to eliminate standing water threats. Miami worked together with surrounding municipalities to tackle the threat and this inter-jurisdictional response will be necessary to combat future disease pandemics. | |
| 556 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 6 | Storm and wind > Cyclone (Hurricane / Typhoon) | Yes | High | High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Emergency services; Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Public health; Residential; Society / community & culture; Tourism; Transport | Elderly; Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Unemployed persons | Not expected to happen in the future | Increasing | High | Immediately | Miami has always been the one of the most vulnerable cities in the U.S. to hurricanes due to its subtropical climate and coastal location in the Atlantic basin. As global average temperature continues to rise due to climate change, hurricane intensity and rainfall are projected to increase. Over time, Miamians may see increased frequency/instances of Category 4 and 5 storms. Rising sea levels will lead to more storm surge, warmer air will lead to more rainfall, and a warmer ocean will lead to faster wind speed – all of which can make hurricanes more powerful. Due to storms, many will be forced to evacuate/relocate and there will be an increase in demand of public services and resources - especially from LMI populations. These severe storms can cause major property damage to individual residents and the city. Hurricane Irma (2017) was the 5th costliest hurricane in U.S. history costing $50 billion to recover from. Hurricane Irma’s storm surge was between 3 and 6 feet in Miami. | |
| 557 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 7 | Extreme hot temperature > Extreme hot days | Yes | High | Medium High | Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Food & agriculture; Public health; Residential; Society / community & culture; Tourism | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Miami currently has about 25 dangerous heat days per year, days that feel 104 degrees or hotter. By 2050 that could increase to over 100 days per year. Extreme heat and humidity is particularly dangerous for youth, elder adults, low-income individuals, and outdoor workers. A hotter, wetter climate will continue to increase the length of mosquito season which can make residents more susceptible to vector-borne diseases like Zika virus.Many low income residents do not have or have limited access to air conditioning which is a public health threat. In the case of a blackout, lack of AC especially in assisted living facilities could be deadly which is why ALFs are required to have generators (compliance rate is currently not 100%). | |
| 558 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 8 | Storm and wind > Tropical storm | Yes | Medium High | Medium High | Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Emergency services; Public health; Society / community & culture; Tourism; Transport | Elderly; Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Unemployed persons | Not expected to happen in the future | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Climate change will cause all storms to increase intensity. More wind and rain can damage property and increase likelihood of floods. See Hurricanes and Rainstorms. | |
| 559 | Cities 2020 | 35870 | City of Miami | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 9 | Flood and sea level rise > Groundwater flood | Yes | Medium High | Medium High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Loss of tax base to support public services; Population displacement | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Land use planning; Residential; Society / community & culture; Tourism; Transport; Water supply & sanitation | Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing | Increasing | Do not know | High | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Residents may experience flooding in their daily lives due to heavy rainfall, sometimes referred to as rain bombs, and seasonal high tides, called King Tides. King Tides are higher-than-normal tidal floods which occur annually and predictably in September through November in Miami. Heavy rainfall coupled with high tides can overwhelm current storm water infrastructure and prevent proper drainage. Miami currently sees flooding from King Tides but at a very low level - King Tide flooding has only impacted daily life when coupled with a rain event (like in 2017). Groundwater flooding is a major problem for those with septic systems as it can cause them to overflow.Septic systems treat wastewater from individual properties. The wastewater from kitchens, bathrooms, and other sources is partially treated as the wastewater flows through a septic tank and subsequently a drainfield, where the clarified liquid is further treated by the unsaturated soil. Thus, by design, the drainfield must be above the groundwater table and remain unsaturated to function effectively. Consequently, septic systems are highly vulnerable to rising groundwater levels. In fact, rising sea levels are already affecting septic systems in certain areas and these impacts are expected to increase over time.Observed King Tide flooding in October 2017: https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/editmid=1KWSSg7rOkqaSr0ealyCsr_uQ68I&ll=25.50121948053221%2C-80.93102899999997&z=9 | |
| 560 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Water Scarcity > Drought | Yes | Medium | Medium | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Energy; Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Persons with disabilities; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Estudos acadêmicos já demonstram que a redução da taxa de pluviosidade da cidade já vem ocorrendo, em menor escala, desde meados do século passado, totalizando uma diminuição de cerca de 44,2 mm de chuva por década. Contudo, essa situação tende a piorar, segundo um levantamento feito pelo Governo do Estado de Pernambuco. Tal pesquisa avaliou o percentual do número máximo de dias secos consecutivos ao ano, chamado de índice CDD, que representa um parâmetro climático que indica a possibilidade de estiagens. Quanto mais alto o índice, mais afetado será o município. Desta forma, o índice CDD do Recife é de 53%, o que corresponde ao terceiro município pernambucano mais impactado pela ocorrência de estiagens no Estado a partir de 2041. Os efeitos dessa nova configuração climática para a cidade serão posteriormente mensurados. Contudo, estudos indicam que longos períodos de estiagem aumenta o risco de erosão, diminui o fluxo de rios, o que afeta diretamente as atividades pesqueiras e os ecossistema ribeirinhos ao diminuir o aporte de água doce nos ecossistemas estuarinos, sendo estes bastante característicos da cidade. Além disso, eventos de estiagem também deterioram a qualidade da água, ao diminuir sua capacidade de diluição, e baixa sua disponibilidade para o consumo doméstico, impactando negativamente as condições de saúde e higiene da população. O Recife possui 3 bacias hidrográficas que ocupam todo o seu território. São elas: Bacia do Capibaribe, do Beberibe e do RioTejipió. Entretanto, a oferta de água da Região Metropolitana do Recife é bastante complexa, sendo composta por uma série de sistemas integrados e de sistemas isolados complementares. Considerando apenas o município do Recife, existe uma combinação da limitaçãoda resolução dos modelos de projeções climáticas regionais, com a própria extensão do município, que é afetado por eventos de precipitação. A ameaça de seca meteorológica considerou a ocorrência de falta ou racionamento de água caso a ameaça se concretize por tempo sufi ciente e, por consequência, como a população poderia lidar com esse impacto, não sendo considerada a gestão ou insipiência na gestão das bacias que atendem a cidade. | |
| 561 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Biological hazards > Vector-borne disease | Yes | High | High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Public health | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Women & girls | Increasing | Decreasing | Medium | Immediately | Uma projeção feita pelo Governo do Estado de Pernambuco sugere que, entre 2041 e 2070, o Recife desponta com o maior índice de doenças associadas ao clima em Pernambuco, em decorrência da dengue, leptospirose, leishmaniose tegumentar americana, leishmaniose visceral, esquistossomose e dos casos de mortalidade infantil relacionados à diarreia. Projetamos a diminuição baseados nas ações que a Prefeitura tem tomado no combate ao Aedes Aegypti, como a inaugurado do Centro Emergência de Mosquitos Estéreis de Recife - CEMER, espaço projetado para a produção de mosquitos estéreis em massa com o objetivo de reduzir a população de mosquitos silvestres. Para continuidade do processo, no ano de 2019 iniciou-se o processo de estabelecimento das colônias, o planejamento, e a mobilização social para o início da liberação no ambiente. | |
| 562 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Extreme hot temperature > Extreme hot days | Yes | High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Public health | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Estudos acadêmicos indicam um aumento de temperatura mínima e máxima na cidade do Recife ao longo dos anos. Ainda, levantamentos do Governo do Estado estimam que entre 2041 e 2070, a cidade sofrerá com elevações de temperatura na ordem de 2,7°C. | |
| 563 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Flood and sea level rise > Coastal flood | Yes | High | High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Loss of traditional jobs; Population displacement | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Residential; Transport | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | O Recife apresenta uma planície costeira com ampla urbanização da orla. Dito isso, estudos indicam que na área costeira da cidade, o nível do mar subiu 5,6 milímetros entre 1946 e 1988, o que significa uma elevação de 24 centímetros em 42 anos. No mesmo período, a erosão costeira e a ocupação do pós-praia provocaram uma redução da linha de praia em mais de 20 metros em Boa Viagem.Complementarmente, um estudo realizado pela NASA indica a vulnerabilidade do Recife perante o degelo de calotas polares, tanto às pertencentes ao polo sul, como também às do polo norte. De acordo com o estudo, quanto mais distante da calota em risco a cidade está localizada, mais chances ela tem de sofrer com os efeitos do degelo e ter seu nível do mar aumentado. Desta forma, Recife é mais fortemente afetada pelo derretimento das calotas polares do norte (Groelândia) e da porção mais à leste da Antártida (mais próxima da Austrália e Nova Zelândia). Sendo assim, o mapeamento realizado por esse estudo identificou que cerca de 30% desse aumento do nível do mar informado no Recife deve-se ao derretimento da Groelândia. A concretização desse cenário afeta não só a infraestrutura costeira densamente habitada da cidade, onde estão concentrados diversos tipos de oferta de bens e serviços, além de alguns dos principais corredores de transporte da cidade, como também a destruição de um dos ecossistemas mais vulneráveis aos efeitos da mudança do clima: os estuários. Devido à proximidade do Recife com os rios e o mar, e ao relevo do litoral pernambucano, o qual apresenta trechos abaixo do nível do mar, a cidade possui ambientes estuarinos bastante característicos. Sendo assim, a zona costeira de Pernambuco apresenta treze estuários. Destes, dois estão localizados no Recife: o estuário do Rio Capibaribe, que inclui a maior reserva de mangue urbano das Américas, e o estuário do Rio Beberibe. Pequenas alterações no nível médio do mar podem modificar o nível de base dos sistemas fluviais e intensificar o processo de erosão costeira e inundação no Recife. Segundo dados registrados no Porto do Recife para o período de 1946 a 1988, houve uma elevação de 5,6 mm/ano. O diagnóstico aponta um aumento progressivo do nível do mar de aproximadamente 0,01m a cada 5 anos. | |
| 564 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Flood and sea level rise > Groundwater flood | Yes | High | Medium | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Loss of traditional jobs; Population displacement | Commercial; Residential; Transport | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Graças à elevação do nível do mar já percebido na cidade, algumas vias públicas ficam parcialmente alagadas nos períodos de maré alta, mesmo sem ocorrências de precipitação. Isso ocorre, pois, as galerias aquáticas da cidade desaguam no mar ou no rio. Porém, quando a maré está alta, as águas acabam retornando para as ruas localizadas em um nível mais baixo. Como todos os cenários traçados para a cidade preveem o aumento cada vez mais acentuado do nível do mar em sua zona costeira, as estimativas é que essa situação descrita se espalhe por outros pontos da cidade, afetando ainda mais a infraestrutura urbana e causando mais transtornos para a população. | |
| 565 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 6 | Mass movement > Landslide | Yes | High | High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Emergency services; Residential | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Uma pesquisa recentemente divulgada pelo IBGE mostra que, de acordo com dados do último censo (2010), o Recife é a quinta cidade do Brasil com o maior número de moradores em áreas propensas a desastres naturais, sendo o deslizamento de morros e encostas o principal risco. Ainda de acordo com a pesquisa, existem 206.761 pessoas vivendo em locais expostos aos perigos de eventos naturais extremos, o que correspondia a cerca de 13% do total da população do município. A ocupação nos morros do Recife se caracteriza por construções precárias ao noroeste e sul do município. Dado o relevo da região, toda a parte mais elevada do município está sujeita emalgum grau à ameaça de deslizamento. No cenário projetado de 2011-2040, há um aumento da intensidade da ameaça de deslizamento. Esse risco se concentra apenas nas regiões com relevo naturalmente mais acidentado. O déficit habitacional, e a densidade demográfica em conjunto com as concentrações de população sensível, especialmente nas Comunidades de Interesse Social (CIS), são as maiores forças na definição das zonas com risco de deslizamento. O processo de ocupação desordenada de encostas cominclinações elevadas apenas acentua a vulnerabilidade da população. | |
| 566 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 7 | Extreme hot temperature > Heat wave | Yes | High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Commercial; Emergency services; Energy; Public health; Residential; Tourism | Children & youth; Elderly; Indigenous population; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | As ondas de calor derivam de fenômenos meteorológicos de grande escala, contudo, efeitos locais consistem na elevação da temperatura em função dos padrões de urbanização (edificação, impermeabilização/asfaltamento, quantidade reduzida de áreas verdes, entre outros), de forma que áreas densamente povoadas funcionam como um potencializador dos impactos relativos aos extremos de temperatura. De modo geral, toda cidade está sujeita à ameaça de ondas de calor, porém, essa ameaça diminui conforme se distancia do litoral no sentido do interior e noroeste do município, onde se encontram as áreas com maior concentração de vegetação. Para definir as zonas com riscos mais elevados, consideram-se fatores que intensificam o risco, como a população sensível (crianças e idosos), especialmente nas áreas com menor arborização. Há um aumento da intensidade da ameaça entre a base histórica e o cenário projetado, o que reflete o aumento progressivo das temperaturas projetadas. A ameaça passa a ser ainda mais intensa na região próxima ao litoral e permeando nas regiões mais centrais e no norte do município, resultando no agravamento na concentração de calor e influenciando no bem-estar e na saúde da população. O aumento progressivo da temperatura poderá impactar a saúde da população em virtude do desconforto térmico e piora na qualidade do ar | |
| 567 | Cities 2020 | 35872 | Municipality of Recife | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 8 | Extreme Precipitation > Rain storm | Yes | High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Commercial; Emergency services; Energy; Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Public health; Residential; Tourism; Transport; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Indigenous population; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Nos ambientes urbanos, as inundações causadas por chuvas intensas são os impactos mais comuns ocasionados por eventos climáticos. No caso do Recife, os problemas relacionados à inundação causados pela alta pluviosidade, datam da época do Brasil colônia a partir do processo de ocupação da planície aluvionar dos rios Capibaribe, Beberibe e Tepijó. Algumas condições geomorfológicas e ambientais contribuem para essa ameaça ser amplamente distribuída, tais como o relevo plano, as baixas cotas de seu território, comaltitudes dominantes entre 2,5 a 5 metros acima do nível médio do mar, a rede de drenagem da região, o lençol freático próximo à superfície e aflorante na estação chuvosa | |
| 568 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Mass movement > Landslide | Yes | High | High | Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Emergency services; Land use planning; Residential; Transport | Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing | Increasing | Increasing | Movimientos en masa tales como deslizamientos, caídas de roca, flujos de detritos, flujos de lodo y reptaciones del terreno. | |||
| 569 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Flood and sea level rise > Flash / surface flood | Yes | High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Food & agriculture; Public health; Transport | Increasing | Increasing | Inundaciones y avenidas torrenciales, las primeras por desbordamiento lento, asociadas al ámbito del río Medellín, y las segundas también llamadas crecientes súbitas, son características de las quebradas que desembocan en el río, por su origen en zonas de alta pendiente.Adicionalmente, algunas vías principales de la ciudad se inundan debido a problemas de cabeza de agua asociadas al valle. | ||||
| 570 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Biological hazards > Vector-borne disease | Medium Low | Medium Low | Increasing | Increasing | Epidemias de dengue y otras enfermedades transmitidas por vectores como los zancudos, se han registrado en épocas de lluvia cuando las aguas estancadas se convierte en criadero ideal para las larvas del mosquito. | |||||||
| 571 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Wild fire > Land fire | Medium High | High | Increasing | Increasing | Se identificaron como Incendios de Cobertura Vegetal, (ICV), e incluye incendios no solo forestales sino también los que se producen o afectan zonas cubiertas de pastos, arbustos y otras especies. | |||||||
| 572 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Wild fire > Forest fire | Medium High | High | Increasing | Increasing | Se identificaron como Incendios de Cobertura Vegetal, (ICV), e incluye incendios no solo forestales sino también los que se producen o afectan zonas cubiertas de pastos, arbustos y otras especies. | |||||||
| 573 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 6 | Extreme hot temperature > Heat wave | Medium | Medium | Increased demand for public services; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Food & agriculture; Water supply & sanitation | Increasing | Increasing | La intensificación de los fenómenos climáticos como el niño y la niña, generan temporadas prolongadas de sequía y de lluvias que afectan la provisión de agua y alimentos, ademas de amenazar la capacidad de las hidroeléctricas. | |||||
| 574 | Cities 2020 | 35873 | Municipality of Medellín | Colombia | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 7 | Extreme Precipitation > Rain storm | Yes | High | High | Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Emergency services; Residential | Increasing | Increasing | nundaciones y avenidas torrenciales, las primeras por desbordamiento lento, asociadas al ambito del rio Medellin, y las segundas tambien llamadas crecientes subitas, son caracteristicas de las quebradas que desembocan en el río, por su origen en zonas de alta pendiente. | ||||
| 575 | Cities 2020 | 35874 | City of Phoenix | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Extreme hot temperature > Extreme hot days | Yes | High | Medium | Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Energy; Public health; Residential; Water supply & sanitation | Elderly; Low-income households; Other, please specify; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Vulnerable communities are at health and safety risk due to pro-longed exposure to heat and dehydration. | |
| 576 | Cities 2020 | 35874 | City of Phoenix | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Biological hazards > Vector-borne disease | Yes | Medium | Medium | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Food & agriculture; Public health | Elderly; Other, please specify; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Fear and possible drastic change of behavior; economic damage. In the future a potential outbreak of west nile virus, or any vector-borne disease whose spread is exacerbated by climate change, could overwhelm the emergency management teams and health care system. | |
| 577 | Cities 2020 | 35874 | City of Phoenix | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Extreme hot temperature > Heat wave | Yes | High | Medium | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Energy; Public health; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Other, please specify; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Same topic as extreme hot days, but this category suggests extended days of intense heat. | |
| 578 | Cities 2020 | 35874 | City of Phoenix | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Flood and sea level rise > Flash / surface flood | Yes | High | Medium | Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Commercial; Residential; Transport | Elderly; Low-income households; Other, please specify; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Experience with flash floods informs the conclusion that impacts may occur unexpectedly anywhere with severe impact. | |
| 579 | Cities 2020 | 35874 | City of Phoenix | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Water Scarcity > Drought | No | High | Medium High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Commercial; Emergency services; Energy; Food & agriculture; Industrial; Residential; Tourism; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Short-term (by 2025) | Phoenix currently has a 100-year supply of water and energy in the region and with Resiliency Planning the region is expected to meet the challenge of new additional climate change threats. | |
| 580 | Cities 2020 | 35877 | City of Pittsburgh | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Flood and sea level rise > Flash / surface flood | Yes | Medium High | Medium High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Public health; Transport; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Our anticipated time scale is Current. We are currently faced with flash flooding. This usually results in landslides, Combined Sewer Overflow, and property (infrastructure) damage. It leads to public safety issues where roads are not passable to respond to emergencies, sewage is backed up into residential and commercial basements, and greater health issues such as mold leading to respiratory issues, an increase in mosquitos and cholera exposure due to standing/ stagnant water. In 2011 a flash flood claimed four lives. As rain events become more frequent and more severe, roads that were paved over streams are more prone to flooding which endangers citizens and emergency responders. We are actively combating this issues with major upgrades to our water system to install a two pipe system as well as Green Infrastructure. Awareness campaigns and flood prevention technologies have also been deployed. | |
| 581 | Cities 2020 | 35877 | City of Pittsburgh | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Extreme hot temperature > Extreme hot days | Yes | Medium High | Medium | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Energy; Food & agriculture; Public health | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | Immediately | Pittsburgh has one of the oldest populations of any US city, and the elderly are more vulnerable to extreme temperatures, which can strain emergency services. The local energy grid struggles to meet peak load for cooling needs, so an extremely hot day could cause blackouts. Pittsburgh also struggles with Air Quality issues and has some of the highest rates of youth suffering from asthma. Extreme heat in combination with poor air, with the addition of increased air pollution as a result of the generation and transmission of energy to keep of with demands to supply air conditioning and fans, only further exacerbates those suffering from health issues as a result of poor air quality. | ||
| 582 | Cities 2020 | 35877 | City of Pittsburgh | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Biological hazards > Insect infestation | Yes | Medium High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Food & agriculture; Public health | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Short-term (by 2025) | Pittsburgh already has the Emerald Ash Borer, but much more of the urban canopy, which covers 42% of Pittsburgh will be at risk if the Asian Longhorn Beetle arrives, and changing climate patterns will bring new pests. As trees die, both landslides and wild fires become more likely. | |
| 583 | Cities 2020 | 35877 | City of Pittsburgh | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Mass movement > Landslide | Yes | Medium High | Medium High | Fluctuating socio-economic conditions; Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Loss of tax base to support public services; Population displacement | Emergency services; Public health; Transport | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Already this year cleaning up landslides has cost the City of Pittsburgh almost $12 million dollars. With an allocated budget of only $1 million this has strained the City budget, taking allocations away from other services to cover the cost. The infrastructure disruption impacts the fabric of the city including access and puts the lives of our residents and emergency service staff at risk. | |
| 584 | Cities 2020 | 35877 | City of Pittsburgh | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Extreme Precipitation > Rain storm | Yes | High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Loss of tax base to support public services; Population displacement | Emergency services; Society / community & culture; Transport | Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Short-term (by 2025) | Increase in rainfall equates to flooding, landslides, and Combined Sewer Overflow for Pittsburgh. | ||
| 585 | Cities 2020 | 35877 | City of Pittsburgh | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 6 | Chemical change > Atmospheric CO2 concentrations | Yes | Medium High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Migration from rural areas to cities | Environment, biodiversity, forestry; Public health; Society / community & culture | Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | ||
| 586 | Cities 2020 | 35878 | City of Sacramento | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Extreme hot temperature > Extreme hot days | Yes | Medium High | Medium Low | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Energy; Food & agriculture; Public health; Transport | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases | Increasing | Increasing | High | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Historically, the average annual maximum temperature in the City of Sacramento has been 74.1°F. This value is projected to increase to between 78.3°F and 79.4°F by midcentury (2040-2049), and to between 79.6°F and 85°F by the end of the century (2090-2099). IHistorically, the City of Sacramento has experienced about four extreme heat days per year. By midcentury (2040-2049), the City is projected to experience between 19 and 22 extreme days per year. At the end of the century (2090-2099), this number is anticipated to be between 22 and 62 extreme heat days per year. Heat waves are projected to increase in frequency, intensity, and duration for the Sacramento region. Extreme heat waves are expected to increase in number by ten times in the Sacramento region and could become an annual event by 2100. Sacramento could experience up to 100 additional days per year with temperatures above 95°F and by 2090, the average July temperature could reach over 104°F. | |
| 587 | Cities 2020 | 35878 | City of Sacramento | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Extreme Precipitation > Rain storm | Yes | Medium | Medium | Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Energy; Public health; Transport; Water supply & sanitation | Elderly; Indigenous population; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Medium High | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Overall, annual precipitation is expected to increase in the Sacramento region. Between theyears of 1961 and 1990, the City of Sacramento received about 18.9 inches of rain per year.By midcentury, this number is projected to increase to between 20.3 and 22.8 inches per year.Annual precipitation may reach 24 inches per year by the end of the century. However, thisincrease will not occur at a uniform rate throughout the year. Results of modeling the Sacramento region predict a slight increase in winter rainfall, while spring and summer months. Historically, the City ofSacramento has experienced about twelve extreme rain events per year. This number couldincrease to about fourteen extreme rain events by the end of the century. The duration ofthese high intensity storms may produce higher volumes of runoff, contribute to increasedflood risk, intensify weatherization of transportation infrastructure such as roads andbridges, and contribute to levee failure. | |
| 588 | Cities 2020 | 35878 | City of Sacramento | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Flood and sea level rise > Groundwater flood | High | High | Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Public health; Transport; Water supply & sanitation | Elderly; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Sacramento is located at the confluence of two rivers. More extreme storm events are expected to increase water runoff to streams and rivers during the winter months, heightening flood risks. | ||||
| 589 | Cities 2020 | 35878 | City of Sacramento | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Flood and sea level rise > Flash / surface flood | Yes | Medium High | Medium High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations; Population displacement | Emergency services; Food & agriculture; Public health; Transport; Waste management; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Indigenous population; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Sacramento is located at the confluence of two rivers. More extreme storm events are expected to increase water runoff to streams and rivers during the winter months, heightening flood risks. Historically, the City of Sacramento has experienced about twelve extreme rain events per year. This number could increase to about fourteen extreme rain events by the end of the century. The duration of these high intensity storms may produce higher volumes of runoff, contribute to increased flood risk, intensify weatherization of transportation infrastructure such as roads andbridges, and contribute to levee failure. | |||
| 590 | Cities 2020 | 35878 | City of Sacramento | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Chemical change > Salt water intrusion | No | Low | Low | Increased resource demand | Food & agriculture; Water supply & sanitation | Indigenous population; Marginalized groups | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Long-term (after 2050) | Sacramento’s location (70 miles inland coast) limits the most significant effects from sea level rise. However, rising sea levels may lead to levee failures in the Delta causing infrastructure damage, flooding, and saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers that may affect Sacramento region groundwater sources. It is also possible that sea level rise could reduce the effectiveness of Delta and nearby Delta levees, or increase flood levels in tidally affected reaches of the Sacramento River, if storm flow and tide conditions coincide. An influx of saltwater would degrade California’s inland estuaries, wetlands, and groundwater aquifers. Saltwater intrusion could threaten the quality and reliability of California’s biggest fresh water supply that is pumped from the southern edge of the Sacramento/San Joaquin River Delta. Areas near the delta are most vulnerable to the effects of sea level rise. Rising sea levels in the Delta may result in saltwater intrusion into the Sacramento River; increased freshwater demands from the municipal and agricultural sector and reduced snowpack may cause further increases in river salinity. In 2014, the U.S.Department of Interior Bureau of Reclamation predicted that Delta salinity may increase by 33% by the end of the century. | |
| 591 | Cities 2020 | 35878 | City of Sacramento | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 6 | |||||||||||||
| 592 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Extreme hot temperature > Extreme hot days | No | High | Medium | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Energy; Public health; Society / community & culture | Children & youth; Elderly; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases | Increasing | Increasing | Low | Short-term (by 2025) | Extreme hot days may lead to an increase in Heat-related illness; and if severe enough, power outages. | |
| 593 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 2 | Storm and wind > Lightning / thunderstorm | No | High | High | Increased resource demand | Emergency services; Energy; Public health | Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Power outages | |
| 594 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 3 | Extreme Precipitation > Rain storm | Yes | High | Medium Low | Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand | Emergency services; Public health; Water supply & sanitation | Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with disabilities | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Urban flooding; Water quality and quantity impacts | |
| 595 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 4 | Storm and wind > Severe wind | No | High | Medium High | Increased resource demand | Emergency services; Energy; Public health | Persons living in sub-standard housing | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Power outages; damage to infrastructure | |
| 596 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 5 | Extreme hot temperature > Heat wave | No | High | Medium High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand; Increased risk to already vulnerable populations | Emergency services; Energy; Public health | Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Short-term (by 2025) | Heat-related illness; power outages | |
| 597 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 6 | Flood and sea level rise > Flash / surface flood | Yes | Medium | Medium High | Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand | Emergency services; Transport; Water supply & sanitation | Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Immediately | Impassable roads rerouting transportation and emergency vehicles; flood damage to homes resulting in mold or other health threats | |
| 598 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 7 | Water Scarcity > Drought | No | Medium | Medium Low | Increased demand for public services; Increased resource demand | Food & agriculture; Public health; Water supply & sanitation | Increasing | Increasing | Low | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Reduced water quality; less water for crops and increased demand for irrigation | ||
| 599 | Cities 2020 | 35879 | City of Minneapolis | United States of America | North America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 8 | Biological hazards > Vector-borne disease | No | Medium High | Medium | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness | Food & agriculture; Public health; Society / community & culture | Children & youth; Elderly; Low-income households; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases | Increasing | Increasing | Medium | Medium-term (2026-2050) | Vector-borne disease | |
| 600 | Cities 2020 | 35880 | Municipality of Porto Alegre | Brazil | Latin America | Climate Hazards and Vulnerability | Climate Hazards | 1 | Extreme hot temperature > Heat wave | Yes | High | High | Increased demand for healthcare services; Increased demand for public services; Increased incidence and prevalence of disease and illness; Increased resource demand | Energy; Food & agriculture; Public health; Water supply & sanitation | Children & youth; Elderly; Indigenous population; Low-income households; Marginalized groups; Persons living in sub-standard housing; Persons with chronic diseases; Persons with disabilities; Unemployed persons; Women & girls | Increasing | Increasing | High | Immediately | Os impactos sentidos até agora afetam a população na medida em que precisem de maior proteção. Ao mesmo tempo que há um aumento de consumo de água e energia para uso de ventilador e ar-condicionado, além dos perigos à saúde, considerando o aumento da absorção de radiação quando expostos . |
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Description
This dataset contains public responses to the CDP-ICLEI Cities 2020 questionnaire on climate hazards. View cities questionnaire guidance at https://www.cdp.net/en/guidance.
This data is collected through the CDP-ICLEI Unified Reporting System. When using this data, please cite both organisations using the following wording: ‘This data was collected in partnership by CDP and ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability’.
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